Post-Independence 

1. Challenges Before India After Independence

Partition and its Aftermath

  • Partition (1947): Division of British India into two independent nations: India and Pakistan. Led to massive violence, displacement, and migration.

    • Communal Riots: Punjab, Bengal, Assam, and Sindh were the most affected.

    • Radcliffe Commission: Tasked with drawing the borders, leading to contentious and arbitrary boundaries.

    • Migration and Resettlement: Over 15 million people displaced, leading to refugee crises in both India and Pakistan.

    • Assassination of Gandhi (1948): Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated by Nathuram Godse in January 1948, exacerbating tensions.

Challenges of National Integration

  • Integration of Princely States: India had over 500 princely states that needed to be integrated into the Indian Union.

    • Junagadh: Integration after its Nawab’s decision to join Pakistan, later resolved through plebiscite.

    • Hyderabad: The Nizam’s refusal to join India led to Operation Polo (1948), annexing it into India.

    • Kashmir: Kashmir’s accession to India in 1947 led to ongoing disputes with Pakistan, including the first Indo-Pak war (1947–48).

  • Goa and Pondicherry:

    • Goa was annexed from Portuguese control in 1961 after military action.

    • Pondicherry, under French control, was integrated in 1954.

  • Tribal Integration and Policy: Challenges of assimilating tribal regions with specific cultural identities into the Indian state.

    • Tribal Policy: There were issues in ensuring development and representation for tribals, leading to dismal performance in many cases.

Economic and Financial Challenges

  • Partition of Assets: India inherited a depleted treasury and unresolved financial issues.

  • Resettlement of Refugees: India had to deal with the resettlement and rehabilitation of millions of refugees, which caused economic strain.

  • Infrastructure and Development: Major challenges in rebuilding the war-torn country, reviving agriculture, and improving industrial capacity.

2. Political Developments Post-Independence

Constitutional Developments

  • Framing of the Constitution:

    • The Constituent Assembly was formed in 1946, with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee.

    • The Constitution was adopted on 26th November 1949, and came into effect on 26th January 1950.

    • It laid the foundation for a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic.

  • Major Provisions:

    • Fundamental Rights: Rights guaranteeing personal freedoms, equality, and protection against discrimination.

    • Directive Principles of State Policy: Guidelines for the government to promote social justice.

    • Federal Structure: Division of powers between the Centre and States.

  • Official Language Act: Declared Hindi as the official language of the Union, with provisions for English for a transitional period.

Shift to Constitutional Democracy

  • India adopted a democratic system with universal suffrage, aiming to provide equal representation to all its citizens.

  • Establishment of democratic institutions, including the Election Commission and Judiciary.

First General Elections (1951–52):

  • The Election Commission of India (ECI) was tasked with conducting free and fair elections. The first elections were a massive logistical challenge.

  • Congress emerged as the dominant party, securing a landslide victory.

3. India’s Political System and Regional Movements

Emergence of One-Party Dominance (Congress)

  • Congress Dominance: Initially, Congress, under leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, dominated the political landscape, establishing a one-party rule.

  • Nehruvian Policies: The adoption of planned economic development, social welfare programs, and foreign policy of non-alignment were hallmarks of his administration.

Challenges to Congress Dominance

  • 1967 Elections: The first serious challenge to Congress dominance occurred in the 1967 general elections when the opposition managed to win in several states.

  • Emergence of Regional Parties: Growth of regional parties in states like Tamil Nadu (DMK), West Bengal (Left Front), and Uttar Pradesh.

Coalition Politics and Decline of Congress (1990s)

  • 1990s: Decline of Congress in the face of coalition politics and the rise of other political forces such as the BJP, JD, and regional parties.

  • Mandal Commission: The recommendation of reservations for OBCs led to mass protests and political realignments.

4. Economic Challenges and Policy Responses

Economic Planning

  • Five-Year Plans: India adopted planned economic development with the establishment of the Planning Commission.

    • First Five-Year Plan (1951-56): Focused on agriculture and poverty alleviation.

    • Second Five-Year Plan (1956-61): Focused on industrialization.

  • Green Revolution: Introduced in the 1960s to increase agricultural productivity, particularly in wheat and rice. It helped in achieving food security but had social and environmental costs.

  • Economic Liberalization (1991):

    • NEP-1991: New Economic Policy marked a shift towards liberalization, privatization, and globalization.

    • Key Reforms: Reduction in import tariffs, devaluation of the rupee, and privatization of state-owned enterprises.

Land Reforms

  • Land Reforms were aimed at improving agricultural productivity by redistributing land from landlords to tenants.

    • Abolition of intermediaries and tenancy reforms.

    • Introduction of land ceiling laws to prevent land accumulation by a few individuals.

5. India’s Foreign Policy

Nehruvian Foreign Policy

  • India followed a policy of non-alignment, aiming to maintain independence in foreign relations and avoid alliances with any of the Cold War powers.

  • Relations with Neighbors:

    • China: The 1962 Sino-Indian War over the border dispute.

    • Pakistan: India fought three wars with Pakistan, leading to the creation of Bangladesh in 1971 after the Indo-Pakistani War.

    • Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan: Diplomatic ties maintained, but occasional tensions due to ethnic conflicts and border issues.

  • Cold War Era: India maintained a neutral stance during the Cold War but leaned towards the Soviet Union in certain diplomatic matters.

6. Social Issues and Movements

Popular Movements

  • Chipko Movement (1970s): Environmental movement aimed at protecting forests in Uttarakhand.

  • Anti-Arrack Movement (1990s): Focused on curbing the consumption of alcohol in Andhra Pradesh.

  • Narmada Bachao Andolan (1980s-90s): Against the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada River, protesting displacement and environmental damage.

Caste and Dalit Movements

  • Dalit Panthers: Originated in Maharashtra in the 1970s, focusing on the rights of Dalits and against caste-based oppression.

  • Ambedkar’s Legacy: Ambedkar’s contributions to the upliftment of Dalits through the Constitution of India and his call for social justice continue to influence modern Dalit movements.

7. Crisis of Democratic Order

The Emergency (1975–77)

  • Imposition of National Emergency by Indira Gandhi in response to political opposition, economic instability, and judicial challenges to her authority.

  • Impact: Suspension of civil liberties, elections delayed, political repression.

  • Post-Emergency: The opposition led by Jayaprakash Narayan came to power, and Janata Party emerged as a key political force.

Communalism and Secularism

  • The rise of communalism posed a major threat to India’s secular fabric.

    • Ayodhya Dispute: The demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992 led to communal riots and debates about secularism in India.

    • Anti-Muslim Riots: Particularly in Gujarat (2002), where communal tensions escalated.

8. Regionalism and Secessionist Movements

  • Punjab Crisis: Led by the Khalistan movement in the 1980s, calling for a separate Sikh state.

  • Naxalite Movement: Originating in West Bengal in the 1960s, spreading to other regions, demanding revolutionary changes.

  • Kashmir: Continued insurgency and demand for autonomy or independence since the 1980s.